Environmental Racism: The Case of Air
Pollution
By: Jessica Soriano
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When we think of environmentalism, we fail to recognize how the
stratification of race as a social construction has affected the overall right
to breathe clean air. Race has been historically used to divide and segregate
the human race into a complex hierarchy, where the group at the top is seen as
socially superior and therefore are granted privilege and the ones at the
bottom are seen as inferior, therefore exposed to social brutalization. For years, racial minorities have been deprived
of environmental information, not meaning they have been uninterested, simply
that they have not been granted this information by the privileged in our
society. History shows us that the groups at the bottom of the social latter
are not as educated as the privileged due to social oppression, making it even
harder to obtain basic information of the natural world. What does that tell us
about our society? The elite have concurrently taken advantage of People of
Color, viewing them as nowhere near of a political threat due to their
abominable and savagely portrayal, making it nearly impossible for them to live
in an environmentally healthy location. Over history and current times, we see
that ethnic minorities are the ones most prevalently affected by air pollution,
suffering from severe health complications and other ailments.
Historically speaking, people of
color have been the main target of distortion by the privileged and the
government itself—through environmental dangers, stereotype threats,
segregation, political discrimination, etc.
Environmental research in the past years has been conducted in order to
examine the correlation between the demographics of people and their risk and
prevalence for diseases. It has been found that when comparing community-level
exposure to air toxins with socioeconomic, political, and demographic
characteristics of a population, that there is a substantial difference in
those with a privileged lifestyle than those without one. In comparing many different
U.S. zip codes there is a great disparity in exposure to air pollution with
race, Black communities in the east part of the United States have historically
been the most affected by polluted surroundings, but now Latinos(as) are the
most affected nationally. Voter turnout also affects exposure; the cities with
fewer amounts of voters tend to be the ones with higher levels of toxins
(Brooks and Sethi 1997). It’s statistically shown that many Latinos in the
United States cannot vote due to their legal status and this evidently plays a
component of their exposure to air pollution.
It is also now devastatingly known that 80 percent Latinos, 65 percent
of African Americans, and 57 percent of Whites live in the 437 counties in the
U.S. that failed to meet at least one of the country’s ambient air quality
standards (Bullard, 2005).
When referring
to polluted air quality, the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) has six
common air pollutants that they seek to reduce in the current environment due to
their harmful effects on health, they include: ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxide, lead, sulfur dioxide, and particular matter (epa.gov). Once these common
air pollutants enter the human body, they persist and accumulate in tissues
creating carcinogens that lead to cancers and other harmful diseases. These pollutants have been shown by much
supported research that they cause: psychiatric disorders, increased hospital
admittance, fertility complication, birth defects, impaired lung function,
mortality, lung complications, and heart disease (O’Neill, et al, 2003). There
needs to be increased awareness for air pollution because it is projected that
65 percent of the world’s population will live in cities by the year 2065.
Worldwide more than 40 percent of the world’s children are estimated to live in
polluted cities of developing worlds and the number is projected to increase.
The tormenting statistics for those affected by air pollution in the world,
unfortunately, are expected to increase in hazard because of the increasing
metropolitan industrialization in developing countries.
In the 1960s and
1970s, there was an up source about awareness on air pollution, when many
ethnic minorities came to the realization that they were living in toxic conditions,
thanks to research. There was criticism against U.S. air pollution policy for
not having equal uniform application in their ways of regulating when the
distribution of policy was considered along with the financial costs of
enforcing policy. It’s a fact that better environmental enforcement will go to
the community that has more income and are more active in political election.
Governmental officials are significantly enforcing environmental regulations in
prestigious areas but lacking the care or concern for underprivileged
neighborhoods, it was evident through freeway construction and eminent domain
in the Los Angeles Area. In the late 1950s, there was strong opposition against
the 5 freeway construction in Los Angeles because it would destroy a lot of
monumental and commercial areas in East Los Angeles. Despite opposition, the
state still went ahead and constructed the freeway and it served to generate a
large multitude of air pollution stemming from diesel and fuel burning from
automobiles in East Los Angeles, which is mostly composed of Mexican Americans.
This abuse directly from the government officials to the people of East Los
Angeles is also a good example of showing how much the county respected
Chicanos (as).This aspect of air pollution policy is inconsistent with any
desire to remedy all areas of the nation equally; despite the fact that they
claimed it to be their primary goal (Gianessi, 1979). These policies did
regulate the treatment of the polluters but certainly did not have uniform treatment
of those directly affected by pollution—minorities.
As there were an
increasing number of those concerned with air pollution, it was not sufficient
for ethnic minorities’ social visibility. Kassarjian (1971) researched the
emerging concerns for ecological balance within the environment. In 1970, the
Standard Oil Company of California introduced a new gasoline with an added
ingredient named F-310 in the Los Angeles county area that promised to reduce
gas emissions and was supported by public officials. However, months later a
study found that it caused more health hazards than with just regular gasoline
alone. It was found that those who decided to try this gasoline, were people
who were environmentally conscious and evidently educated—the privileged.
Juxtaposing the concern with higher income and race, most of the ones who
supported this new promising gas were indeed of European ancestry. Then again, during this time, just after the
Civil Rights movement, ethnic minorities had just been granted the right to
civil education, so it was evident that most were environmentally unaware of
policies and the risks they were being exposed to.
In the year 2000,
minorities like Blacks, Native Americans, and Latinos were ranked among the
most affected by toxic air pollution when compared to all other races. Pace
2005, highlighted in his article the comparison and results of using Census
data from the year 2000 to get emission data exposure on certain populations.
He found in his analysis that more than four of every ten blacks in Kentucky,
Oregon, Wisconsin, and Minnesota lived in high-risk neighborhoods with toxic
air pollutants. He also found that in Michigan, 8.3 percent of the people
living in toxic areas were Latino. The average income in the highest prone to
pollution neighborhoods was $18,806, according to the Census 2000. One of every
six people in the high-risk areas lived in poverty, compared with one of eight
elsewhere (Pace, 2005). Simpson, G. & Milton, J. (1985) explain that
Latinos are much more significantly affected by air pollution because they live
in densely populated barrios and ghettos with impoverished conditions. These
areas are of very high risk because it’s likely that most of the members of the
community are experiencing health difficulties brought on by air pollution,
infection, diseases, and other hazards obtained from their environment. They
also explain that having low skilled jobs is also a factor of being exposed to
industrial pollution and most of the time they are paid equal to or lesser than
minimum wage. Historically and currently, the cause of such bad health of
Latinos and Black may just be the environment they are exposed to, socially and
physically.
Industrial
pollution is the main cause of air pollution in the United States. Kwak (2009)
argues that corporations do not bear or measure the costs of external damage
around them like air pollution –they continue to create it without really
analyzing what it’s causing around them or to their employees. The effects of
industrial company’s pollution result in affecting low-socioeconomic cities
with little to no political power. It is estimated 15 percent of negative
impacts from industrial pollution falls on the very poor, who make up 12.9% of
the population. At the extremes, the
disparities can be large; for example, ExxonMobil, one of the biggest polluters
in the U.S. has a 55 percent effect on pollution impact on African-Americans,
largely because of two Baton Rouge facilities that together generate 60 percent
of its total pollution (Kwak, 2009). Toxic air pollutants from corporations are
those emissions thrown into the air from known or suspected to cause cancer or
other serious health effects and adverse environmental effects. The EPA works
to control 188 pollutants from the environment. These toxins and pollutants are
but not limited to: benzene, methylene chloride, dioxin, asbestos, toluene,
cadmium, mercury, and others. Most air toxics come from human-made sources like
cars emissions, factories, power plants, and even indoor sources like cleaning
solvents or building materials (Kwak, 2009).
There have been
many environmental justice movements nationally that have had a strong impact
on the EPA’s policies, many have been successful others relatively not.
Chambers (2007) found that in Hartford, Connecticut, environmental health
problems disproportionately affect poor and minority residents of the city. The
community of Hartford fortunately found about these disparities and currently
has organizations that are trying to and have created a multiracial
organization composed of both urban and suburban residents to fight for
environmental justice. The Hartfort Environmental Justice Network (HEJN) from
Connecticut is an example of what an oppressed community with little political
power does to fight against corporate America’s pollution. Chambers (2007),
advices that there needs to be an ongoing common subject, interest for one
self’s health and as well as the rest in order to have a successful
organization. This city is one of Connecticut’s poorest and has had triumph in
getting noticed.
The EPA is an
agency set out to “protect public health and public welfare and to regulate
emissions of hazardous air pollutants.” (EPA.gov). This Agency was created in
order to help control the hazardous air pollutants that were being created in
the 60s and . However, it is mostly composed of older Euro American men
(Bullard, 2005). These EPA elected officials who are not representative of the
actual population are making decisions of the air we breathe and the ecology we
are exposed to as minorities. Fortunately through the many environmental
justice movements in the 1960s, there have been environmental policies enacted
in order to better control the air we breathe. The most significant act was
passed in 1970. The Clean Air Act (CAA) which was enacted in order to regulate
air emissions into the environment, it seeks to “protect public health and
public welfare and to regulate emissions of hazardous air pollutants.”
(epa.gov). The Emergency Planning &Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) was
passed as a way to better educate communities about their environmental rights,
it states that, “This law is designed to help local communities protect public
health, safety, and the environment from chemical hazards.” (epa.gov). The EPA also defines "Acid rain" as
a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition from the
environment containing harsh amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. In order to
keep the population better informed, the EPA releases a Toxic Releases
Inventory (TRI) each year, a publication that reports the companies with the
highest levels of pollutants. Their mission statement of this publication is
to, inform the communities of possible polluters near them.
The government
eventually did become interested in air pollution which Congress’ reasoning to
support the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, in order to better assist the
affected communities. The start of congress’ interest in air pollution began as
early as in 1949. The numbers of air pollution control bills were low up until
the intervention of President Eisenhower in 1955, leading to the enactment of
the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 to conduct more research on air pollution
(Bailey, 1998). Overall, congress’ interest in air and water pollution became
increasing with the public’s concern for it and with more research escalating
the harmful effects of air pollution. The Congress has been highly supportive
of the EPA and it has shown, since 1990, the total annual emissions of 188
regulated toxins have declined by 36 percent. The government also enforces
environmental laws under section 414 [42 U.S.C. 7651], which states that
“It shall be unlawful for any person to this title to violate any prohibition of,
requirement of, or regulation promulgated pursuant to this title shall be a
violation of this Act[Clean Air Act]” (epa.gov).
Everywhere in
the United States, ethnic minorities are being affected by large quantities of
air toxins and pollutants. Mantaay (2007) performed a case study in the Bronx,
New York, measuring asthma levels and exposure to air toxins found that,
“people living near noxious land uses were up to 66 percent more likely to be
hospitalized for asthma, and were 30 percent more likely to be poor and 13
percent more likely to be a minority than those outside the buffers” (pg. 13).
Asthma induced by bad air quality affects children and the elderly in the
Bronx, who mostly are from African descent. Everything was measured from
disease mapping, epidemiological inquiries, and health service analysis.
In Phoenix, Arizona there is a devastating amount of air
pollution that affects mostly Latino immigrants. Grineski, et al, 2007 found
that in Phoenix, Arizona, Latino immigrants and a high percentage of multiracial
renters of property were the highest exposed in terms of unhealthy air quality.
Euro-Americans were then those who resulted to be benefiting from better air
quality in Phoenix. Due to low
population of African Americans in Arizona, there were no significant
proportions of African American’ exposed to bad air quality. The researchers attribute this significant
disproportion of the distribution of healthy air quality with the role of white
privilege in historical and current development of industrial sites, creating
racially segregated neighborhoods. And they continue to build industrial
transportation sites near these underprivileged communities (Grineski, et al,
2007).
Let us not abandon the importance of the industrial changes
in the 1930s, when highway planning started in order to create more economic
development. The government justified their taking of minority property with
eminent domain, saying that highways would produce more economic development
for the states; they evidently didn’t take into consideration the consequences
affecting minorities and there was not enough research to justify it (Jarett,
2000).With eminent domain present, the government authorized the purchase of
property even though it was purchased for a lesser than fair housing value,
they did not care. Perhaps they felt that minorities weren’t educated enough to
know that they were being cheated. Highway pollution is extremely dangerous
especially in high density areas where there is a lot of cars frequently
transporting, the diesel and gas emissions are very harmful to human health.
This kind of pollution has been correlated to heart disease, asthma, and brain
damage. The damage is done not by smog but by tiny particles in the air, made
up of burning fossil fuel and decomposing car parts. Unfortunately, those living next to these
highly polluted areas happen to be Latinos, who are the majority in East Los
Angeles. Los Angeles freeways rank among the most polluted in the entire world
and nation causing sever health complications to those who live around these
highly visited routes and the social awareness is incrementing.
In the world today, it has been shown that short-term
increases in particulate air pollution are linked with increased daily
mortality and severe diseases. It was tested to see whether economic and social
class were determinants of susceptibility to polluted environments and bad air
quality in Rome, Italy. Not surprisingly, it was found that particulate air
pollution is more prevalent in people of low socioeconomic status. Less
advantaged people live in bad areas of the city, where there is more pollution
like around waste fills and other unhealthy places, because it’s where there is
more affordable housing that they can budget (Forastiere, et al, 2007). Globally
speaking, everyone who is of an unprivileged position in society is more likely
to suffer from exposure of harmful toxins and pollutants than those at the top
of the social hierarchy.
Air pollution is the highest contributor to global
warming—the event where the planet Earth is slowly heating and causing the ice
caps to slowly melt, allowing for there to be more ocean than land. Greenhouse
gases are solely responsible for causing global warming, these gases which are
also harmful to human health include: carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane
and water vapor (Girard, 2011). Air pollution affect everyone and everything
around us, like innocent animals like polar bears that have to suffer the
consequence of human action by having their habitat destroyed. Without
greenhouse gases, according to the EPA, earth would be 60 degrees Fahrenheit
colder.
If it were not
for the EPA’s policies and restrictions, corporate America would probably have
caused pollution to that of China’s and still continue to blatantly refuse to
care about the human consequences as long as they would receive their
commission. In terms of air toxicity, socioeconomic status has shown to be
determinant of overall exposure and health, in general. The way humans get
exposed to these air toxins are through breathing contaminated air, eating
contaminated food, drinking polluted water, or having contact with contaminated
particles in the world. Unfortunately, it us, people of color that have to bear
the consequences of others through environmental pollution that we may not even
have significantly contributed to.
There is still not
sufficient knowledge by the Latino community about air quality dangers and that
needs to be implemented as soon as possible, we have to increase awareness of
their direct risk to environmental pollution. We have to realize the
exploitation we have been put through by the groups at the top of the social
ladder. I personally have family members who have or are currently working in
high polluted areas that get paid as much as a retail sales associate; but the
harm to their health is more valuable than the wage they’ve conformed to. Other
hazards for minorities in low income areas are their food intake most of the
time minorities are looking for inexpensive food and they end up being exposed
to supermarkets in their neighborhood that sell cheap groceries but that may be
highly contaminated with harmful preservatives. Historically people of color
have been abused environmentally by corporate American and agency’s whose
supposed goal is to protect equally but only end up betraying the communities
at risk. Sadly, now it is not just us humans who have to suffer through
environmental torture that the privileged in our society have created— it is
also innocent, precious animals. Clean air should be a right, not a privilege.
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